Table 1 U.S. studies examining racial discrimination, loneliness and mental health

Dong, Hwang and Hodgson (2024) [62]

Various

Asian international graduate students (mean age: 29.4 ± 5.1)

Everyday discrimination scale [71

Depression, loneliness, anxiety

Racial discrimination was associated with depression. Greater loneliness symptoms were linked to more severe depression and increased anxiety symptoms.

Jochman et al. (2019) [61]

Midwestern

Racially diverse college students (mean age: 20.3 ± 1.9)

Racism and life experiences scale [72]

Depression, anxiety, loneliness, anger, positive affect

Interpersonal discrimination predicted increased anxiety, depressive symptoms, and loneliness, both on a daily basis and on average over time.

Lee and Bierman (2019) [63]

Various

Racially diverse older adults (mean age: 66.0 ± 10.4)

Short-form everyday discrimination scale [73]

Depression

Everyday discrimination was associated with loneliness and depressive symptoms. The link between discrimination and loneliness was stronger among older adults with low educational attainment, making discrimination indirectly associated with depressive symptoms through loneliness only in this group.

Lee and Turney (2012) [13]

Chicago

Racially diverse adults (mean age not reported)

Everyday discrimination scale [71] & major lifetime discrimination scale [74]

Depression, loneliness, hostility

Everyday discrimination scores, but not major lifetime discrimination scores, were associated with depressive symptoms and loneliness.

Maleku et al. (2022) [64]

Various

Racially diverse international students (mean age: 27.8 ± 5.5)

Everyday discrimination scale [71]

Depression, loneliness, anxiety

Loneliness partially mediated the relationship between discrimination and both depression and anxiety. Both loneliness and anxiety partially mediated the relationship between discrimination and depression.

Nadimpalli et al. (2015) [35]

Urban city

Black older adults (mean age: 73.6 ± 6.3)

Everyday discrimination scale [71]

Depression, loneliness

Discrimination was positively associated with depressive symptoms. Loneliness did not moderate this relationship.

Nelson et al. (2021) [36]

Various

Black women (mean age: 34.2 ± 11.4)

Revised schedule of sexist events [75]

Depression, loneliness, anxiety

Loneliness mediated the relationships between gendered racism, gendered racial stress, and both anxiety and depression.

Ormiston et al. (2024) [60]

Various

Asian and Pacific Islander adults (mean age not reported)

Short-form everyday discrimination scale [73]

Depression, loneliness, anxiety

Experiencing discrimination once a month was associated with increased odds of anxiety, depression, and loneliness. Experiencing discrimination once a week or more was linked to even higher odds of these outcomes.